Soil & Water Res., 2024, 19(1):1-24 | DOI: 10.17221/64/2023-SWR

Soil pore structure and its research methods: A reviewReview

Nannan Wang1,2,3, Tibin Zhang1,3,4*
1 Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semiarid Areas, Ministry of Education, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, P.R. China
2 College of Water Resources and Architectural Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, P.R. China
3 Institute of Water-saving Agriculture in Arid Area of China, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, P.R. China
4 Institute of Water and Soil Conservation, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources, Yangling, Shaanxi, P.R. China

Soil pore is an important part of soil structure. According to the causes of formation, soil pores can be divided into biological pores formed by animal movement and plant root development and non-biological pores formed by dry-wet and freeze-thaw alternation or artificial tillage. The soil pore structure affects the migration of water, gas, nutrients and so on in the soil, especially the macropores can also produce water or solute preferential migration. Studying soil pores is of great significance for predicting soil hydraulic properties, reducing groundwater pollution and soil nutrient loss. Based on previous studies on soil pore structure, this paper systematically summarized the role of soil pores, influencing factors and the advantages and disadvantages of various research methods. This paper not only introduces traditional methods (including direct and indirect methods), but also summarizes the new research on soil pores combined with computed tomography (CT) technology and other science and technology in recent years. Finally, the prospect and development trend of soil pore research in the future were predicted, so as to provide reference for further research on soil pore structure.

Keywords: image analysis; influencing factors; network model; soil structure

Received: July 7, 2023; Revised: November 4, 2023; Accepted: November 14, 2023; Prepublished online: January 3, 2024; Published: February 15, 2024  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Wang N, Zhang T. Soil pore structure and its research methods: A review. Soil & Water Res. 2024;19(1):1-24. doi: 10.17221/64/2023-SWR.
Share...
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Abrosimov K.N., Gerke K.M., Fomin D.S., Romanenko K.A., Korost D.V. (2021): Tomography in soil science: From the first experiments to modern methods (A review). Eurasian Soil Science, 54: 1385-1399. Go to original source...
    2. Allegretta I., Legrand S., Alfeld M., Gattullo C.E., Porfido C., Spagnuolo M., Janssens K., Terzano R. (2022): SEM-EDX hyperspectral data analysis for the study of soil aggregates. Geoderma, 406: 115540. Go to original source...
    3. Anderson S.H., Peyton R.L., Gantzer C.J. (1990): Evaluation of constructed and natural soil macropores using X-ray computed tomography. Geoderma, 46: 13-29. Go to original source...
    4. Andreini M.S., Steenhuis T.S. (1990): Preferential paths of flow under conventional and conservation tillage. Geoderma, 46: 85-102. Go to original source...
    5. Berisso F.E., Schjøming P., Keller T., Lamandé M., Etana A., Jonge L., Iversen B.V., Arvidsson J., Forkman J. (2012): Persistent effects of subsoil compaction on pore size distribution and gas transport in a loamy soil. Soil and Tillage Research, 122: 42-51. Go to original source...
    6. Beven K., Germann P. (1982): Macropores and water flow in soils. Water Resources Research, 18: 1311-1325. Go to original source...
    7. Beven K., Germann P. (2013): Macropores and water flow in soils revisited. Water Resources Research, 49: 3071-3092. Go to original source...
    8. Bilger C., Aboukhedr M., Vogiatzaki K., Cant R. S. (2017): Evaluation of two-phase flow solvers using level set and volume of fluid methods. Journal of Computational Physics, 345: 665-686. Go to original source...
    9. Bodner G., Scholl P., Kaul H.-P. (2013): Field quantification of wetting-drying cycles to predict temporal changes of soil pore size distribution. Soil and Tillage Research, 133: 1-9. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    10. Bottinelli N., Jouquet P., Capowiez Y., Podwojewski P., Grimaldi M., Peng X. (2015): Why is the influence of soil macrofauna on soil structure only considered by soil ecologists? Soil and Tillage Research, 146: 118-124. Go to original source...
    11. Bouma J. (1981): Soil morphology and preferential flow along macropores. Agricultural Water Management, 3: 235-250. Go to original source...
    12. Bouma J., Wösten J.H.M. (1984): Characterizing ponded infiltration in a dry cracked clay soil. Journal of Hydrology, 69: 297-304. Go to original source...
    13. Bronick C.J., Lal R. (2005): Soil structure and management: A review. Geoderma, 124: 3-22. Go to original source...
    14. Bryk M., Ko³odziej B., S³owiñska-Jurkiewicz A., Jaroszuk-Sierociñska M. (2017): Evaluation of soil structure and physical properties influenced by weather conditions during autumn-winter-spring season. Soil and Tillage Research, 170: 66-76. Go to original source...
    15. Cameron K.C., Buchan G.D. (2006): Porosity and pore size distribution. Encyclopedia of Soil Science, 1: 1350-1353. Go to original source...
    16. Chen F., Shi H. (2005): A primary study on the relation of soil macropore and water infiltration in evergreen broad-leaved forest of Jinyun Mountain. Journal of Southwest China Normal University (Natural Science Edition), 30: 350-353.
    17. Chen F., Shi H. (2006): A study on soil preferential flow under three vegetations in the upper reach of Minjiang River by brilliant blue dye tracer. Ecological Science, 25: 69-73.
    18. Chen X., Zhang X., Liang A., Jia S., Shi X., Fan R., Wei S. (2012): Tillage effects on soil pore size distribution and soil moisture in Northeast China. Journal of Arid Land Resources and Environment, 26: 114-120.
    19. Chen Y.L., Palta J., Clements J., Buirchell B., Siddique K., Rengel Z. (2014): Root architecture alteration of narrow-leafed lupin and wheat in response to soil compaction. Field Crops Research, 165: 61-70. Go to original source...
    20. Cheng Y., Liu J., Lyu F., Zhang J. (2012a): Three-dimensional reconstruction of soil pore structure and prediction of soil hydraulic properties based on CT images. Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering, 28: 115-122.
    21. Cheng Y., Liu J., Zhang J. (2012b): Advance in the study on quantification of soil pore structure. Chinese Journal of Soil Science, 43: 988-994.
    22. Cortina-Januchs M.G., Quintanilla-Dominguez J., Vega-Corona A., Tarquis A.M., Andina D. (2011): Detection of pore space in CT soil images using artificial neural networks. Biogeosciences, 8: 279-288. Go to original source...
    23. Dal Ferro N., Delmas P., Duwig C., Simonetti G., Morari F. (2012): Coupling X-ray microtomography and mercury intrusion porosimetry to quantify aggregate structures of a cambisol under different fertilisation treatments. Soil and Tillage Research, 119: 13-21. Go to original source...
    24. Daneshian B., Habibagahi G., Nikooee E. (2021): Determination of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of sandy soils: A new pore network approach. Acta Geotechnica, 16: 449-466. Go to original source...
    25. Demianov A., Dinariev O., Evseev N. (2011): Density functional modelling in multiphase compositional hydrodynamics. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 89: 206-226. Go to original source...
    26. Dexter A.R. (1988): Advances in characterization of soil structure. Soil and Tillage Research, 11: 199-238. Go to original source...
    27. Edwards W.M., Shipitalo M.J., Owens L.B., Dick W.A. (1993): Factors affecting preferential flow of water and atrazine through earthworm burrows under continuous no-till corn. Journal of Environmental Quality, 22: 453-457. Go to original source...
    28. Ehlers W. (1975): Observations on earthworm channels and infiltration on tilled and untilled loess soil. Soil Science, 119: 242-249. Go to original source...
    29. Ehlers W., Köpke U., Hesse F., Böhm W. (1983): Penetration resistance and root growth of oats in tilled and untilled loess soil. Soil and Tillage Research, 3: 261-275. Go to original source...
    30. El-Husseiny A. (2021): Unified packing model for improved prediction of porosity and hydraulic conductivity of binary mixed soils. Water, 13: 455. Go to original source...
    31. Ferreira T.R., Pires L.F., Auler A.C., Brinatti A.M., Ogunwole J.O. (2019): Water retention curve to analyze soil structure changes due to liming. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 91: e20180528. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    32. Flury M., Flühler H. (1994): Brilliant Blue FCF as a dye tracer for solute transport studies - A toxicological overview. Journal of Environmental Quality, 23: 1108-1112. Go to original source...
    33. Gaiser R. (1952): Root channels and roots in forest soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 16: 62-65. Go to original source...
    34. Gerke K.M., Karsanina M.V. (2015): Improving stochastic reconstructions by weighting correlation functions in an objective function. EPL, 111: 56002. Go to original source...
    35. Gerke K.M., Karsanina M.V., Skvortsova E.B. (2012a): Description and reconstruction of the soil pore space using correlation functions. Eurasian Soil Science, 45: 861-872. Go to original source...
    36. Gerke K.M., Skvortsova E.B., Korost D.V. (2012b): Tomographic method of studying soil pore space: Current perspectives and results for some Russian soils. Eurasian Soil Science, 45: 700-709. Go to original source...
    37. Gerke K.M., Korostilev E.V., Romanenko K.A., Karsanina M.V. (2021): Going submicron in the precise analysis of soil structure: A FIB-SEM imaging study at nanoscale. Geoderma, 383: 114739. Go to original source...
    38. Gharedaghloo B., Price J.S., Rezanezhad F., Quinton W.L. (2018): Evaluating the hydraulic and transport properties of peat soil using pore network modeling and X-ray micro computed tomography. Journal of Hydrology, 561: 494-508. Go to original source...
    39. Ghodrati M., Chendorain M., Chang Y.J. (1999): Characterization of macropore flow mechanisms in soil by means of a split macropore column. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 63: 1093-1101. Go to original source...
    40. Green R.D., Askew G.P. (1965): Observations on the biological development of macropores in soils of Romney Marsh. Journal of Soil Science, 16: 342-344. Go to original source...
    41. Guo X., Zhao T., Liu L., Xiao C., He Y. (2018): Effect of sewage irrigation on the CT-measured soil pore characteristics of a clay farmland in Northern China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15: 1043. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    42. Guo X.M., Guo N., Liu L. (2023): Effects of wetting-drying cycles on the CT-measured macropore characteristics under farmland in Northern China. Eurasian Soil Science, 56: 747-755. Go to original source...
    43. Hagedorn F., Bundt M. (2002): The age of preferential flow paths. Geoderma, 108: 119-132. Go to original source...
    44. Hajnos M., Lipiec J., Swieboda R., Sokolowska Z., Witkowska-Walczak B. (2006): Complete characterization of pore size distribution of tilled and orchard soil using water retention curve, mercury porosimetry, nitrogen adsorption, and water desorption methods. Geoderma, 135: 307-314. Go to original source...
    45. Han Q., Zhao Y., Liu L., Chen Y., Zhao Y. (2019): A simplified convolutional network for soil pore identification based on computed tomography imagery. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 83: 1309-1318. Go to original source...
    46. Han Q., Bai H., Liu L., Zhao Y., Zhao Y. (2021): Model representation and quantitative analysis of pore three-dimensional morphological structure based on soil computed tomography images. European Journal of Soil Science, 72: 1530-1542. Go to original source...
    47. He X., Apte S., Wood B. (2015): Direct numerical simulation of turbulent flow in a porous, face centered cubic cell. In: 67th Annual Meeting of the APS Division of Fluid Dynamics. California, Nov 23-25, 2014.
    48. Holmes D.W., Williams J.R., Tilke P., Leonardi C.R. (2016): Characterizing flow in oil reservoir rock using SPH: Absolute permeability. Computational Particle Mechanics, 3: 141-154. Go to original source...
    49. Hondebrink M., Cammeraat L., Cerdà A. (2017): The impact of agricultural management on selected soil properties in citrus orchards in Eastern Spain: A comparison between conventional and organic citrus orchards with drip and flood irrigation. Science of the Total Environment, 581: 153-160. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    50. Hu X. (2003): The development of soil surface crust and the relationship between soil crust development and rainfall splash erosion. [Agr.M. Thesis.] Wuhan, Huazhong Agricultural University.
    51. Hu X., Lyu Y.L., Liu Y., Li X.Y., Sun Z.T., Li Z.C., Cheng Y.Q., Guo L.L., Liu L.Y. (2018): Exclosure on CT-measured soil macropore characteristics in the Inner Mongolia grassland of northern China. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 18: 718-726. Go to original source...
    52. Isensee A.R., Helling C.S., Gish T.J., Kearney P.C., Coffman C.B., Zhuang W. (1988): Groundwater residues of atrazine, alachlor, and cyanazine under no-tillage practices. Chemosphere, 17: 165-174. Go to original source...
    53. Jiao Y., Stillinger F.H., Torquato S. (2007): Modeling heterogeneous materials via two-point correlation functions: Basic principles. Physical Review E Statistical Nonlinear and Soft Matter Physics, 76: 031110. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    54. Jongerious A., Heintzberger G. (1975): Methods in Soil Micromorphology: A Technique for the Preparation of Large Thin Sections. Soil Survey Papers, Wageningen, Soil Survey Institute.
    55. Karsanina M.V., Gerke K.M., Skvortsova E.B., Dirk M., Teja G. (2015): Universal spatial correlation functions for describing and reconstructing soil microstructure. PLoS ONE, 10: e0126515. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    56. Karsanina M.V., Lavrukhin E.V., Fomin D.S., Yudina A.V., Abrosimov K.N., Gerke K.M. (2020): Compressing soil structural information into parameterized correlation functions. European Journal of Soil Science, 72: 561-577. Go to original source...
    57. Kautz T. (2015): Research on subsoil biopores and their functions in organically managed soils: A review. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 30: 318-327. Go to original source...
    58. Kay B. (1990): Rates of change of soil structure under different cropping systems. Advances in Soil Science, 12: 1-52. Go to original source...
    59. Koestel J., Schlüter S. (2019): Quantification of the structure evolution in a garden soil over two years. Geoderma, 338: 597-609. Go to original source...
    60. Kücke M., Schmid H., Spiess A. (1995): A comparison of four methods for measuring roots of field crops in three contrasting soils. Plant and Soil, 172: 63-71. Go to original source...
    61. Lai Q., Li C., Huang Q. (1992): Effect of continuous application of inorganic fertilizer on soil structure properties of paddy soil derived from red soil. Acta Pedologica Sinica, 2: 168-174.
    62. Lan Z., Zhao Y., Zhang J., Yang X., Sial T.A., Khan M.N. (2020): Effects of the long-term fertilization on pore and physicochemical characteristics of loess soil in Northwest China. Agronomy Journal, 112: 4741-4751. Go to original source...
    63. Langner H.W., Gaber H.M., Wraith J.M., Huwe B., Inskeep W.P. (1999): Preferential flow through intact soil cores effects of matric head. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 63: 1591-1598. Go to original source...
    64. Larsbo M., Koestel J., Jarvis N. (2014): Relations between macropore network characteristics and the degree of preferential solute transport. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 18: 5255-5269. Go to original source...
    65. Lavrukhin E.V., Gerke K.M., Romanenko K.A., Abrosimov K.N., Karsanina M.V. (2021): Assessing the fidelity of neural network-based segmentation of soil XCT images based on pore-scale modelling of saturated flow properties. Soil and Tillage Research, 209: 104942. Go to original source...
    66. Le Bayon R., Guenat C, Schlaepfer R, Fischer F., Luiset A., Schomburg A., Turberg P. (2021): Use of X-ray microcomputed tomography for characterizing earthworm-derived belowground soil aggregates. European Journal of Soil Science, 72: 1113-1127. Go to original source...
    67. Lewis D.T. (1977): Subgroup designation of three udolls in southeastern Nebraska. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 41: 940-945. Go to original source...
    68. Li D., Velde B., Zhang T. (2003): Quantitative estimation of pore variability and complexity in soils by digital image method. Acta Pedologica Sinica, 5: 678-682.
    69. Li K., Li Q., Liu C. (2022): Effect of freezing temperature and water content on pore structure characteristics of coastal saline-alkali soil under frost heave. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 22: 1819-1827. Go to original source...
    70. Li T. (2017): Characteristics of soil macropore on the loess plateau and their effects on soil water. [Agr.M. Thesis.] Yangling, Northwest A & F University.
    71. Li W., Jin C., Wang A., Pei T., Guan D. (2007): Amount and vertical distribution of macropores in forest soils in Changbai Mountains. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 10: 2179-2184.
    72. Li X., Zhang L.M. (2009): Characterization of dual-structure pore-size distribution of soil. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 46: 129-141. Go to original source...
    73. Liu J., Xu S., Liu H., Guo F. (2004): Determination of soil hydraulic properties using a morphology-based pore scale network model. Acta Pedologica Sinica, 41: 218-224.
    74. Liu W., Ou Z., Ying P. (2001): Soil macropore and its studying methodology. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 12: 465-468. Go to original source...
    75. Logsdon S.D., Allmaras R.R., Wu L., Swan J.B., Randall G.W. (1990): Macroporosity and its relation to saturated hydraulic conductivity under different tillage practices. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 54: 1096-1101. Go to original source...
    76. Lucas M., Schlüter S., Vogel H.J., Vetterlein D. (2019): Soil structure formation along an agricultural chronosequence. Geoderma, 350: 61-72. Go to original source...
    77. Luo J., Banerjee S., Ma Q., Liao G., Hu B., Zhao H., Li T. (2023): Organic fertilization drives shifts in microbiome complexity and keystone taxa increase the resistance of microbial mediated functions to biodiversity loss. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 59: 441-458. Go to original source...
    78. Luo L., Lin H., Li S. (2010): Quantification of 3-D soil macropore networks in different soil types and land uses using computed tomography. Journal of Hydrology, 393: 53-64. Go to original source...
    79. Luxmoore R.J. (1981): Micro-, meso-, and macroporosity of soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 45: 671-672. Go to original source...
    80. Luxmoore R.J., Jardine P.M., Wilson G.V., Jones J.R., Zelazny L.W. (1990): Physical and chemical controls of preferred path flow through a forested hillslope. Geoderma, 46: 139-154. Go to original source...
    81. Ma J. (2005): Experimental studies on the characteristics of soil moisture movement under water storage pit irrigation. [Agr.M. Thesis.] Xi'an, Xi'an University of Technology.
    82. Ma R., Jiang Y., Liu B., Fan H. (2021): Effects of pore structure characterized by synchrotron-based micro-computed tomography on aggregate stability of black soil under freeze-thaw cycles. Soil and Tillage Research, 207: 104855. Go to original source...
    83. Mando A., Miedema R. (1997): Termite-induced change in soil structure after mulching degraded (crusted) soil in the Sahel. Applied Soil Ecology, 6: 241-249. Go to original source...
    84. Mapa R.B., Green R.E., Santo L. (1986): Temporal variability of soil hydraulic properties with wetting and drying subsequent to tillage. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 50: 1133-1138. Go to original source...
    85. Martín M.A., Martínez F.S.J., Perfect E., Lado M., Pachepsky Y. (2017): Soil structure and function in a changing world: Characterization and scaling Preface. Geoderma, 287: 1-3. Go to original source...
    86. McBratney A.B., Moran C.J., Stewart J.B., Cattle S.R., Koppi A.J. (1992): Modifications to a method of rapid assessment of soil macropore structure by image analysis. Geoderma, 53: 255-274. Go to original source...
    87. Mehmani Y., Tchelepi H.A. (2017): Minimum requirements for predictive pore-network modeling of solute transport in micromodels. Advances in Water Resources, 108: 83-98. Go to original source...
    88. Meng C., Niu J., Li X., Luo Z., Du X., Du J., Lin X., Yu X. (2017): Quantifying soil macropore networks in different forest communities using industrial computed tomography in a mountainous area of North China. Journal of Soil and Sediments, 17: 2357-2370. Go to original source...
    89. Meng C., Niu J., Yu H., Du L., Yin Z. (2020): Research progress in influencing factors and measuring methods of three-dimensional characteristics of soil macropores. Journal of Beijing Forestry University, 42: 9-16.
    90. Moore I., Burch G., Wallbrink P. (1986): Preferential flow and hydraulic conductivity of forest soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 50: 876-881. Go to original source...
    91. Mosley M.P. (1982): Subsurface flow velocities through selected forest soils, South Island, New Zealand. Journal of Hydrology, 55: 65-92. Go to original source...
    92. Müller K., Katuwal S., Young I., McLeod M., Moldrup P., de Jonge L.W., Clothier B. (2018): Characterising and linking X-ray CT derived macroporosity parameters to infiltration in soils with contrasting structures. Geoderma, 313: 82-91. Go to original source...
    93. Niu Y., Zhang M., Bai S.H., Xu Z., Liu Y., Chen F., Guo X., Luo H., Wang S., Xie J., Yuan X. (2020): Successive mineral nitrogen or phosphorus fertilization alone significantly altered bacterial community rather than bacterial biomass in plantation soil. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 104: 7213-7224. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    94. Omoti U., Wild A. (1979): Use of fluorescent dyes to mark the pathways of solute movement through soils under leaching conditions: 2. Field experiments. Soil Science, 128: 98-104. Go to original source...
    95. Otsu N. (1979): A threshold selection method from gray-scale histograms. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 9: 62-66. Go to original source...
    96. Ou Z., Jia L., Jin H., Jiang X., Zhang Q., Gao J. (1999a): Macropores and preferential flow and their effects on pollutant migration in soils. Acta Pedologica Sinica, 36: 341-347.
    97. Ou Z., Jia L., Jin H., Yediler A., Jiang X., Kettrup A., Sun T. (1999b): Formation of soil macropores and preferential migration of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) in soils. Chemosphere, 38: 1985-1996. Go to original source...
    98. Páez-Bimos S., Villacís M., Morales O., Calispa M., Molina A., Salgado S., de Bievre B., Delmelle P., Muñoz T., Vanacker V. (2022): Vegetation effects on soil pore structure and hydraulic properties in volcanic ash soils of the high Andes. Hydrological Processes, 36: e14678. Go to original source...
    99. Palansooriya K.N., Wong J.T.F., Hashimoto Y., Huang L., Rinklebe J., Chang S. X., Bolan N., Wang H., Ok Y.S. (2019): Response of microbial communities to biochar-amended soils: A critical review. Biochar, 1: 3-22. Go to original source...
    100. Parker J.C. (1984): Analysis of solute transport in column tracer studies. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 48: 719-724. Go to original source...
    101. Peng X., Zhang Z., Gan L., Yoshida S. (2016): Linking soil shrinkage behavior and cracking in two paddy soils as affected by wetting and drying cycles. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 80: 1145-1156. Go to original source...
    102. Perret J., Prasher S.O., Kantzas A., Hamilton K., Langford C. (2000): Preferential solute flow in intact soil columns measured by SPECT scanning. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 64: 469-477. Go to original source...
    103. Perroux K.M., White I. (1988): Designs for disc permeameters. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 52: 1205-1215. Go to original source...
    104. Peyton R.L., Haeffner B.A., Anderson S.H., Gantzer C.J. (1992): Applying X-ray CT to measure macropore diameters in undisturbed soil cores. Geoderma, 53: 329-340. Go to original source...
    105. Peyton R.L., Gantzer C.J., Anderson S.H., Haeffner B.A., Pfeifer P. (1994): Fractal dimension to describe soil macropore structure using X-ray computed-tomography. Water Resources Research, 30: 691-700. Go to original source...
    106. Pot V., Zhong X., Baveye P.C. (2020): Effect of resolution, reconstruction settings, and segmentation methods on the numerical calculation of saturated soil hydraulic conductivity from 3D computed tomography images. Geoderma, 362: 114089. Go to original source...
    107. Pot V., Portell X., Otten W., Garnier P., Monga O., Baveye P.C. (2022): Accounting for soil architecture and microbial dynamics in microscale models: Current practices in soil science and the path ahead. European Journal of Soil Science, 73: e13142. Go to original source...
    108. Prill T., Schladitz K., Jeulin D., Faessel M., Wieser C. (2013): Morphological segmentation of FIB-SEM data of highly porous media. Journal of Microscopy, 250: 77-87. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    109. Prodanoviæ M., Bryant S.L. (2006): A level set method for determining critical curvatures for drainage and imbibition. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 304: 442-458. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    110. Qin Z., Lai Y., Tian Y., Zhang M. (2021): Effect of freeze-thaw cycles on soil engineering properties of reservoir bank slopes at the northern foot of Tianshan Mountain. Journal of Mountain Science, 18: 541-557. Go to original source...
    111. Radulovich R., Solorzano E., Sollins P. (1989): Soil macropore size distribution from water breakthrough curves. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 53: 556-559. Go to original source...
    112. Rasiah V., Aylmore L. (1998.): Characterizing the changes in soil porosity by computed tomography and fractal dimension. Soil Science, 163: 203-211. Go to original source...
    113. Reynolds W.D., Drury C.F., Yang X.M., Tan C.S., Yang J.Y. (2014): Impacts of 48 years of consistent cropping, fertilization and land management on the physical quality of a clay loam soil. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 94: 403-419. Go to original source...
    114. Ringrose-Voase A.J. (1996): Measurement of soil macropore geometry by image analysis of sections through impregnated soil. Plant and Soil, 183: 27-47. Go to original source...
    115. Rokhforouz M.R., Akhlaghi Amiri H.A. (2017): Phase-field simulation of counter-current spontaneous imbibition in a fractured heterogeneous porous medium. Physics of Fluids, 29: 2286-2146. Go to original source...
    116. Romero-Ruiz A., Monaghan R., Milne A., Coleman K., Cardenas L., Segura C., Whitmore A.P. (2023): Modelling changes in soil structure caused by livestock treading. Geoderma, 431: 116331. Go to original source...
    117. Rouquerol J., Baron G.V., Denoyel R., Giesche H., Groen J., Klobes P., Levitz P., Neimark A. V., Rigby S., Skudas R. (2012): The characterization of macroporous solids: An overview of the methodology. Microporous & Mesoporous Materials, 154: 2-6. Go to original source...
    118. Sarkar S., Singh S.R. (2007): Interactive effect of tillage depth and mulch on soil temperature, productivity and water use pattern of rainfed barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Soil and Tillage Research, 92: 79-86. Go to original source...
    119. Sasanian S., Newson T.A. (2013): Use of mercury intrusion porosimetry for microstructural investigation of reconstituted clays at high water contents. Engineering Geology, 158: 15-22. Go to original source...
    120. Schlüter S., Großmann C., Diel J., Wu G.M., Tischer S., Deubel A., Rücknagel J. (2018): Long-term effects of conventional and reduced tillage on soil structure, soil ecological and soil hydraulic properties. Geoderma, 332: 10-19. Go to original source...
    121. Shi H., Liu S. (2005): The macroporosity properties of forest soil and its eco-hydrological significance. Mountain Research, 23: 533-539.
    122. Shi H., Chen F., Liu S. (2005): Macropores properties of forest soil and its influence on water effluent in the upper reaches of Minjiang River. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 25: 507-512.
    123. Shi Z., Wang Y., Xu L., Yu P., Xiong W., Xu D. (2007): Soil macropore characteristics under typical vegetations in Liupan Mountains. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 18: 2675-2680.
    124. Singh P., Kanwar R.S., Thompson M.L. (1991): Measurement and characterization of macropores by using AUTOCAD and automatic image analysis. Journal of Environmental Quality, 20: 289-294. Go to original source...
    125. Skopp J. (1981): Comment on ''Micro-, Meso-, and Macroporosity of Soil''. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 45: 1246. Go to original source...
    126. Stewart J.B., Moran C.J., Wood J.T. (1999): Macropore sheath: quantification of plant root and soil macropore association. Plant and Soil, 211: 59-67. Go to original source...
    127. Sun M., Huang Y., Sun N., Xu M., Wang B., Zhang X. (2015): Advance in soil pore and its influencing factors. Chinese Journal of Soil Science, 46: 233-238.
    128. Taboada M.A., Micucci F.G., Cosentino D.J., Lavado R.S. (1998): Comparison of compaction induced by conventional and zero tillage in two soils of the Rolling Pampa of Argentina. Soil and Tillage Research, 49: 57-63. Go to original source...
    129. Tang Y., Yan J. (2015): Effect of freeze-thaw on hydraulic conductivity and microstructure of soft soil in Shanghai area. Environmental Earth Sciences, 73: 7679-7690. Go to original source...
    130. Tian M., Qin S., Whalley W., Zhou H., Ren T., Gao W. (2022): Changes of soil structure under different tillage management assessed by bulk density, penetrometer resistance, water retention curve, least limiting water range and X-ray computed tomography. Soil and Tillage Research, 221: 105420. Go to original source...
    131. Tian M., Whalley W., Zhou H., Ren T., Gao W. (2023): Does no-tillage mitigate the negative effects of harvest compaction on soil pore characteristics in Northeast China? Soil and Tillage Research, 233: 105787. Go to original source...
    132. Tokunaga K.I. (1988): X-ray stereoradiographs using new contrast media on soil macropores. Soil Science, 146: 199-207. Go to original source...
    133. Tschinkel W.R. (1987): Seasonal life history and nest architecture of a winter-active ant, Prenolepis imparis. Insectes Sociaux, 34: 143-164. Go to original source...
    134. Urbina C.A.F., Van Dam J.C., Hendriks R.F.A., van den Berg F., Gooren H.P.A., Ritsema C.J. (2019): Water flow in soils with heterogeneous macropore geometries. Vadose Zone Journal, 18: 1-17. Go to original source...
    135. Vermeul V.R., Istok J.D., Flint A.L., Pikul Jr, J.L. (1993): An improved method for quantifying soil macroporosity. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 57: 809-816. Go to original source...
    136. Vogel H.J. (2000): A numerical experiment on pore size, pore connectivity, water retention, permeability, and solute transport using network models. European Journal of Soil Science, 51: 99-105. Go to original source...
    137. Wang D., Chu D. (1992): Effect of zero tillage and minimum tillage on physical properties of soil in dryland. Journal of Hebei Agricultural University, 15: 28-33.
    138. Wang M., Xu S., Yang J., Xu L., Yu Q., Xie X., Shi X., Zhao Y. (2021a): The effect of organic and conventional management practices on soil macropore structure in greenhouse vegetable production. European Journal of Soil Science, 72: 2133-2149. Go to original source...
    139. Wang W., Zhang Y., Li H. (2021b): Quantification of soil structure via synchrotron X-ray tomography after 22 years of fertilization. European Journal of Soil Science, 72: 2115-2127. Go to original source...
    140. Wang Z., Yu X., Xu Y., Gao D., Li F. (2009): Characterization of soil/sediment micropores and their impacts on the sorption-desorption behavior of organic pollutants. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 29: 2087-2096.
    141. Watson K.W., Luxmoore R.J. (1986): Estimating macroporosity in a forest watershed by use of a tension infiltrometer. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 50: 578-578. Go to original source...
    142. Webb B., Robinson D.A., Marshall M.R., Ford H., Pagella T., Healey J.R., Smith A.R. (2022): Variation in root morphology amongst tree species influences soil hydraulic conductivity and macroporosity. Geoderma, 425: 116057. Go to original source...
    143. Wu H., Chen X., Chen C. (2007): Study on macropore in main paddy soils in Tai-Lake region with CT. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 21: 175-178.
    144. Wu J., Zhang J., Gao R. (2009): The effect of the infiltration characteristics under the different macropores depth in the soil. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 23: 91-95.
    145. Xiong Q., Baychev T.G., Jivkov A.P. (2016): Review of pore network modelling of porous media: Experimental characterisations, network constructions and applications to reactive transport. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 192: 101-117. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    146. Xu L., Wang M., Tian Y., Shi X., Shi Y., Yu Q., Xu S., Pan J., Li X., Xie X. (2020): Relationship between macropores and soil organic carbon fractions under long-term organic manure application. Land Degradation & Development, 31: 1344-1354. Go to original source...
    147. Xu W., Li K., Chen L., Kong W., Liu C. (2021): The impacts of freeze-thaw cycles on saturated hydraulic conductivity and microstructure of saline-alkali soils. Scientific Reports, 11: 18655. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    148. Xuan K., Li X., Yu X., Jiang Y., Ji J., Jia R., Wang C., Liu J. (2022): Effects of different organic amendments on soil pore structure acquired by three-dimensional investigation. European Journal of Soil Science, 73: e13246. Go to original source...
    149. Yang Y., Wu J., Zhao S., Mao Y., Zhang J., Pan X., He F., van der Ploeg M. (2021): Impact of long-term sub-soiling tillage on soil porosity and soil physical properties in the soil profile. Land Degradation & Development, 32: 2892-2905. Go to original source...
    150. Yu X., Fu Y., Lu S. (2017): Characterization of the pore structure and cementing substances of soil aggregates by a combination of synchrotron radiation X-ray micro-computed tomography and scanning electron microscopy. European Journal of Soil Science, 68: 66-79. Go to original source...
    151. Yu X., Guo X., Hong P., Chen S., Zhu F., Sun K., Ding F. (2019): Effects of different humic acid soil conditioners on wheat yield and main properties of coastal alkali-saline soil. Humic Acid, 2019: 52-57.
    152. Zeng Y., Gantzer C.J., Payton R.L., Anderson S.H. (1996): Fractal dimension and lacunarity of bulk density determined with X-ray computed tomography. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 60: 1718-1724. Go to original source...
    153. Zhang J. (2013): Research on the effects of macropores on rainfall infiltration in vadose zone soils of well vegetated slope. [Agr.M. Thesis.] Kunming, Kunming University of Science and Technology.
    154. Zhang M., Lu Y., Heitman J., Horton R., Ren T. (2017a): Temporal changes of soil water retention behavior as affected by wetting and drying following tillage. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 81: 1288-1295. Go to original source...
    155. Zhang Q., Cao Z., Gu C., Cai Y. (2022): Prediction of soil-water retention curves of road base aggregate with various clay fine contents. Applied Sciences-Basel, 12: 3624. Go to original source...
    156. Zhang S., Tang Q., Bao Y., He X., Tian F., Lü F. (2018): Effects of seasonal water-level fluctuation on soil pore structure in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Journal of Mountain Science, 15: 2192-2206. Go to original source...
    157. Zhang W., Li S., Xu Y., Liu X. (2019): Advances in research on relationships between soil pore structure and soil microenvironment and organic carbon turnover. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 33: 1-9.
    158. Zhang Y., Niu J., Zhu W., Du X., Li J. (2015): Effects of plant roots on soil preferential pathways and soil matrix in forest ecosystems. Journal of Forestry Research, 26: 397-404. Go to original source...
    159. Zhang Y., Fu L., Zhao W., Yan J. (2017b): A review of researches on preferential flow in desert-oasis region. Journal of Desert Research, 37: 1189-1195.
    160. Zhao L., Pan Y., Wang S., Zhang L., Islam M.S. (2021): A hybrid crack detection approach for scanning electron microscope image using deep learning method. Scanning, 2021: 5558668. Go to original source... Go to PubMed...
    161. Zhao Y., Hu X. (2020): Influence of freeze-thaw on CT measured soil pore structure of alpine meadow. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 34: 362-367.
    162. Zhou H., Fang Y., Zhou C. (2010): Application of mercury intrusion porosimetry in the study of pore distribution in saturated soft soil. Yellow River, 32: 101-103.
    163. Zhou H., Peng X., Perfect E, Xiao T., Peng G. (2013): Effects of organic and inorganic fertilization on soil aggregation in an Ultisol as characterized by synchrotron based X-ray micro-computed tomography. Geoderma, 195-196: 23-30. Go to original source...
    164. Zhou J., Tang Y. (2018): Experimental inference on dual-porosity aggravation of soft clay after freeze-thaw by fractal and probability analysis. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 153: 181-196. Go to original source...
    165. Zong Y., Yu X., Zhu M., Lu S. (2015): Characterizing soil pore structure using nitrogen adsorption, mercury intrusion porosimetry, and synchrotron-radiation-based X-ray computed microtomography techniques. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 15: 302-312. Go to original source...

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY NC 4.0), which permits non-comercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content